Abstract
The analysis of botanical information, derived from a thorough study of the Homeric epics, has revealed 466 records of plants, corresponding to 89 different species. All plant species were attributed to living taxa, at different categories. Most of the plant names recorded in the epics have been retained in Modern Greek as integral words or roots; they have been used in the formation of the scientific terms or taxa names for both plants and animals. Based on the Homeric plant names, 537 scientific terms were formatted, whereas 519 plant names and 622 animal names were derived from these plants. The knowledge of the Homeric people about plants, as reflected in the epics, seems to be focusing mainly, but not exclusively, on cereals (wheat and barley) as having been essential ingredients of the human diet. On the other hand, some very common plants of the present time do not appear in the epics, since they were introduced later. Useful botanical information can be derived from studying the Homeric epics, which along with archaeology and art may help historical archaeobotanists to reconstruct the flora of ancient ages.
Key Words: Age of Homer, Bronze Age, Scientific terminology, Greek Civilization, Historical Archaeobotany, Plants in Antiquity.
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Introduction
The Homeric epics, the first written documents of world literature, constitute a source of information for scientists worldwide, providing insight into archaeology early civilizations. These first written documents of Greek language also contain valuable information on our relationships with plants, which can be especially useful for botanists. The natural environment was recorded for the first time in the Homeric epics, where each plant was regarded as unique and given its own name. Plants are conspicuous in the epics of this period (Billerbeck, 1824; Buchholz, 1871). Furthermore, the results of in-depth botanical studies may help researchers reconstruct the flora of this age.
The plants described in the Homeric epics are related to nutrition, mythology (sacred trees of the Gods, nymphs or heroes), magic, pharmacology, art and the everyday life of the people belonging to that era. The endless and complex route followed by Ulysses, the variety of the places he had visited and the peoples he had met, gave Homer the opportunity to describe in his work “Odyssey” the riches of the flora his hero had encountered. Unlike Odyssey, the natural setting of action in “Iliad” is comparatively very confined. This drawback is lifted by the poet in a most masterly manner. In Iliad, many plant species are mentioned in graphic descriptions and vivid comparisons as well as in flashbacks recounting peaceful agricultural activities of the heroes involved, where the presence of plants is strong (Richter, 1968).
The detailed description of the external features of plants and plant organs has contributed to the identification and the genesis of the scientific terminology employed by the international botanical community. The Roman conquest for many centuries transported this experience from its birthplace to the European countries. It was through the Latin language that other European languages (English, German, French, etc.) adopted a great number of scientific terms and plant names from the Greek language. As Isidori Hispalensis (1911) admits in his Etymologica for the plant names: «Multa latina nomina, graecam etymologiam recipiunt» (Many Latin names have Greek etymology). According to Schubert and Wagner (1975), Greek plant names outnumber the Latin ones.
Homer may be regarded as the forerunner of Aristotle and Theophrastos as far as the science of botany is concerned. Homer’s works, which give us an abundance of information about trees and plants, constitute the first approach to the botany of the world known then to the Greeks, despite the science of botany itself having evolved much later (Forster, 1936). In the Homeric epics, 89 taxa of plants are cited. Theocritus (3rd Cent. B.C.) identified 107 plant names. Centuries after Homer, Hippocrates (460 – 370 B.C.) referred to 234 healing herbs. The scientific observation and research, however, of the plant world began during the Aristotle era (384-322 B. C.). Later, Theophrastos (1483 B. C.), who was Aristotle’s student and is called “the father of botany” laid the foundations of scientific research and recording of plants. In his works, 550 plants are cited. Dioscorides (2000) in “De materia medica” described 600 medical plants. After Dioscorides a lot of information on plants was produced by Greek, Roman, Arab and other European writers such as Galen Claudius (1525), Aetius of Amida (1542), Psellus (1979), Myrepsus Nicolaus (1549), etc.
The first attempt to determine plant species described by Homer and other ancient writers according to the Linnaeus system was made by Sprengel (1817), who was followed by Sibthorp (1813; see Walter and Mabberley, 1999; Rhizopoulou, 2004), De Candolle (1825), Heldreich (1862), Halacsy (1904), Kabbadas (1956), and Genadios (1959). There has been some confusion in the identification of the names described by Homer and other ancient Greek writers according to the Linnaeus system. The problem has been that many European botanists with little knowledge of the Greek flora and of the ancient Greek texts tried to identify the plants of Homer with the plants encountered in the flora of their own land (Krinos, 1881).
The plant name “ζειά” (zeia, from zein = live), was given to maize (Zea mays), a plant from the New World which arrived in Europe first in the 16th century, whereas the Greek “zeia” was named Sorghum bicolor (from ind. sorghi). The plant Daphne “δάφνη” was renamed into Laurus nobilis, and its name was given to a plant of the Rutaceae family (Daphne gnidium). The name “μελία” (melia) which is dominant in the descriptions of Homeric battles because it had been the source from which ancient spears were made was given to Μelia azedarach, native of the Himalayas and India. The Homeric melia turned into Fraxinus excelsior since its branches had been used in the construction of poles. Imagine, spears becoming poles and an ornamental bush inheriting the name of the most strategic tree/weapon of the ancient world!
The aim of this study is to compose the flora in Greece and of adjacent areas around 3000 years ago based on the knowledge that Homeric people had about the plant kingdom. I have endeavoured to demonstrate the contribution of the Homeric language to the science of contemporary botany. Thus, this work i) presents all plants appearing in the epics, ii) makes an attempt to assign the classical plant names to recent taxa, iii) compares the flora illustrated in the Homeric epics to the present flora and iv) gives the formation of scientific terminology, plant and animal names derived from the Homeric plants. The present paper should not be regarded as the ultimate traditional vocabulary of Homeric plants. With more study, our knowledge of Homeric plants will continue to grow.
Materials and Methods
Αn attempt was initially made to record all plants appearing in the texts of Homer and to correlate them with taxa still living in the same region. To achieve this goal the following texts were studied: Iliad, Odyssey, Homeric Hymnes, Batrachomyomachy, Epicos Kyklos, Margitis and Homeric epigrams, attributed to Homer according to historical documentation of the Greek classical literature of that period. It has been suggested in modern times that these works were written, at a later date, around 500 B.C. (Easterling and Knox, 1985). The standard editions of Oxford classical texts were used together with valid translations in Modern Greek, such as those by Doukas (1998, 1999, 2000) and Papaditsas and Ladia (1997).
First, all lines were checked thoroughly for plant records (Rec.). The correlation of plant names with the modern nomenclature was made possible by combining the information embodied in plant names (most of which have been retained in Modern Greek) with morphological descriptions and/or information on the ecology, biology and behaviour given in the texts. Wherever possible, this was supported by available archaeological evidence or literature. All the above data were evaluated by employing a variety of botanical books (Kabbadas, 1956; Genadios, 1959; Hegi, 1975; Tutin et al., 1996). In order to clarify the correspondence of the Homeric plant names with the scientific Latin ones, a comparison was made between morphological features that Homer presented with great poetic detail with those given in the descriptions of the plant species in the above scientific botanical books. In addition to this material, various specialists in different taxonomic groups were consulted and suggestions (Sugg.) from previous authors were also adapted. Care was taken to be as accurate as possible when attributing classical names to modern taxa.
The fact that a classical name has been retained in Modern Greek was not in itself sufficient to identify a species, although most of the Homeric words are used in the same way and many of them with the same meaning in Modern Greek. Despite the fact that, in some cases plants do not have exactly the same name today, their Homeric name has been used in the formation of scientific terms (ST) and a variety of plant names (PN) or animal names (AN). These estimations were based on specialized lexicons (Wittstein, 1852; Konstantinidis, 2001). The wide use of Greek words both in the botanical and zoological nomenclature is reflected by the set of rules found in “The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature” (Greuter et al., 2000) and “The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature” (Ride et al., 1985) governing their transliteration and latinization.
Results and Discussion
Homeric Plant Presentation
Although in the present work a thorough study of the plants reported in Homeric epics was attempted, it does not represent a comprehensive picture of the flora of ancient Greece and adjacent areas at that time. I have collected and decoded the information regarding plant life recorded in the texts from a biological point of view, in an attempt to show human knowledge as it is reflected therein. Overall, the information given in the Homeric epics on the plant species, including their ecology and physiology, does not seem to contradict current knowledge. In many cases the plants do not appear directly in the epics but sometimes as adjectives (Crocus sativus, Lilium candidum), person names (Clinopodium vulgare, Origanum vulgare, Ocimum basilicum, Paeonia officinalis), names of cities (Sesamum indicum), special places in the garden where they are cultivated (Allium ampeloprasum) etc. The plants found in this study have been categorized according to knowledge of them during Homer’s time.
a. Fungi (Ascomycetes)
1. Ευρώτες (Eurotes), Aspergillus reptans (Corda) Sacc. (Trichocomaceae). Rec: Il Υ 65, Od κ 512, Od ψ 322, Od ω 10, Hymn Dem 482. ST: Eurotiales, Eurotiaceae, Eurotophilus, Eurotophyta. PN: Eurotia, Εurotium. AN: Eurotas.
b. Waterplants
2. Δόναξ (Donax), Αrundo donax L. (Poaceae). Rec: Il Κ 467, Il Λ 584, Il Σ 576, Od ξ 473, Hymn Herm 47, Hymn Pan 15. PN: Donax. AN: Donaceus, Donacites, Donacophilus, Donacoceras, Donacochara, Donacophyllum, Donacochlora, Donax, Machaerodonax, Prodonacosmilia.
3. Θρύον (Thryon), Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. (Poaceae). Sugg.: Scirpus (Wiesner, 1873; Euchholz, 1848), Juncus and Carex (Friedreich, 1855). Rec: Il Β 592, Il Λ 711, Il Φ 351, Hymn Apol 423. PN: Thryallis, Thryocephalum. AN: Thryonomys, Thryothorus.
4. Κάλαμος (Kalamos), Αcorus calamus L. (Acoraceae). Rec: Il Τ 222, Od ξ 214, Batr 127. ST: Calamite, Calamographer. PN: Asterocalamites, Calamagrostis, Calamaria, Calamina, Calamifolius, Calamintha, Calamites, Calamitoid, Calamitosus, Calamocladus, Calamocloe, Calamodendron, Calamoid, Calamophyton, Calamopitys, Calamostachys, Calamus, Dendrocalamus. AN: Calamiscus, Calamites, Calamobates, Calamobius, Calamodes, Calamodon, Calamodyta, Calamoecetor, Calamoherpe, Calamoichthys, Calamomyia, Calamophilus, Calamophyllia, Calamops, Calamopteryx, Calamospiza, Calamothespis, Calamothrips, Calamotypa, Calamura, Calamus.
5. Οξύσχοινος (Oxyschoinos), Cyperus capitatus Vand. (Cyperaceae). Rec: Batr 164, Batr 214, Batr 245, Batr 253.
6. Όροφος (Orophos), Phragmites communis Trin. (Poaceae). Sugg.: Arundo phragmites (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il Ω 451. PN: Orophea, Orophyte, Orophytium. AN: Orophaspis, Orophe, Orophia, Orophicephalus, Orophicus, Orophius, Orophoceramus, Orophocrinus, Orophotus, Orophus.
7. Πράσον (Prason), Potamogeton natans L. (Potamogetonaceae). Rec: Batr 232, Batr 235, Batr 252. ST: Prase, Prasolite, Prasophagy, Prasophagus. PN: Prasioid, Prasites, Prasium, Prasopora. AN: Prasocuris, Prasoidea, Prasona, Prasospora.
8. Σχοίνος (Schoinos), Juncus acutus L. (Juncaceae). Sugg.: Scirpus lacustris (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il B 497, Il Δ 383, Od ε 463, Hymn Art 3. ST: Schoenobatist. PN: Holoschoenus, Schoenanthus, Schoenefeldia, Schoenia, Schoenidium, Schoenobiblus, Schoenocaulon, Schoenocephalium, Schoenodorus, Schoenodum, Schoenoprasum, Schoenopsis, Schoenorchis, Schoenoxyphium, Schoenus. AN: Schoeniclus, Schoenicus, Schoeniophylax, Schoenis, Schoenobates, Schoenobius, Schoenocrex, Schoenoploca, Schoenotenes, Schoinobates.
9. Φύκος (Phycos), Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile (Posidoniaceae). Rec: Il Ι 7, Il Ψ 693. ST: Phycic acid, Phycite, Phycobiont, Phycocecidia, Phycochrome, Phycochromoprotein, Phycochrysin, Phycocolloid, Phycocyan, Phycocyanogen, Phycoerythrin, Phycography, Phycohaematin, Phycolichenes, Phycology, Phycomattter, Phycophaein, Phycophyta, Phycoplast, Phycoporphyrin, Phycopyrrhine, Phycoscope, Phycostemones, Phycoxanthin. PN: Drepanophycus, Phucagrostis, Phycella, Phycobrya, Phycobryophytes, Phycocastanum, Phycomater, Phycomyces. AN: Phycia, Phycita, Phycitimorpha, Phycodroma, Phycograptus, Phycoma, Phyconomus, Phycophila, Phycopsis, Phycosoma, Phycus.
c. Cereales
10. Ζειά (Zeia), Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Poaceae). Sugg.: Triticum monococcum (Billerbeck, 1824), Triticum spelta (Εuchholz, 1848). Rec: Od δ 41, Od δ 604. ST: Zeaxanthin, Zeinolysis, Zeism. PN: Zea, Zeokriton. AN: Zeidora, Zeiraphera.
11. Κριθή (Krithi), Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae). Sugg.: Hordeum sativum (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il Β 410, Il Λ 631, Il Λ 640, Od α 349, Od β 290, Od β 355, Od γ 441, Od γ 445, Od δ 41, Od δ 761, Od ζ 8, Od ι 110, Od κ 234, Od μ 358, Od ν 261, Od ξ 429, Od τ 197, Hymn Apol 491, Hymn Apol 458, Hymn Dem 309. ST: Crith, Crithology, Crithomancy. PN: Critesium, Crithamus, Crithesium, Crithmum, Crithopsis, Krithe, Microcrith. AN: Crithe, Crithidia, Crithologos, Crithophaga, Crithote.
12. Όλυρα (Olyra), Triticum spelta L. (Poaceae). Sugg.: Triticum zea (Billerbeck, 1824; Link, 1816; Sprenge,l 1817), Triticum monococcum (Euchholz 1848), Rec: Il Ε 196, Il Θ 564. PN: Olyra. AN: Olyra.
13. Σίτος / πυρός (Sitos / pyros), Triticum monococcum L. (Poaceae). Sugg.: Triticum sativum (Euchholz 1848). Rec: Il Β 695, Il Ι 216, Il Ι 706, Il Κ 569, Il Λ 756, Il Μ 314, Il Ξ 123, Il Ο 372, Il Τ 161, Il Φ 602, Il Ω 129, Il Ω 613, Il Ω 625, Il Ω 641, Od α 139, Od α 147, Od γ 495, Od δ 604, Od θ 222, Od ι 89, Od ι 110, Od ι 191, Od κ 101, Od μ 19, Od ν 244, Od ξ 335, Od ο 312, Od ο 406, Od ρ 12, Od ρ 362, Od τ 112, Od τ 536, Hymn Apol 228, Hymn Apol 461, Hymn Apol 499. ST: Sitieirgia, Sitiology, Sitiomania, Sitiophobia, Sitology, Sitomania, Sitosterol, Sitosterolemia, Sitotaxis, Sitotherapy, Sitotoxin, Sitotropism. PN: Αgropyron, Apyrophorum, Pyrobolus, Pyrochaeta, Pyrochroa, Pyrophorum, Pyrus, Sitanium, Sitodium, Sitolobium. AN: Sitaria, Sitaris, Siterocoptes, Siteutes, Siticus, Sitina, Sitochroa, Sitocorax, Sitodiplosis, Sitodrepa, Sitomys, Sitones, Sitophagus, Sitophora, Sitotroga.
d. Pasture plants
14. Άγρωστις (Agrostis), Elymus repens (L.) Gould (Poaceae). Rec: Od ζ 90. ST: Agrosterol, Agrostography, Agrostology. PN: Agrostis, Agrostemma, Agrosticula, Agrostophyllum, Agrotis, Calamagrostis, Chamagrostis, Lasiagrostis, Linagrostis, Phucagrostis. AN: Agrostichthys, Agrostobia.
15. Kύπειρον (Kypeiron), Cyperus longus L. (Cyperaceae). Sugg.: Cyperus rotundus (Sprengel, 1817), Cyperus flavescens (Billerbeck, 1824). Rec: Il Φ 351, Od δ 603, Hymn Herm 107. ST: Cyperographer, Cyperologist. PN: Cyperorchis, Cypripedium, Sclerocyperus. AN: Cyperobia.
16. Λωτός (Lotos), Trifolium medium L. (Leguminosae). Sugg.: Lotus corniculatus (Sprengel, 1817). Rec: Il Β 776, Il Μ 283, Il Ξ 348, Il Φ 351, Od δ 603, Hymn Herm 107. ST: Lotusin. PN: Lotus. AN: Lotagnostus, Lotis, Lotisma.
17. Σέλινον (Selinon), Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae). Rec: Il Β 776, Od ε 72, Batr 54. ST: Selinene, Selinenol. PN: Elaeoselinum, Oreoselinum, Selinum, Petroselinum. AN: Selimnus, Selinus.
e. Legumes
18. Ερέβινθος (Erebinthos), Cicer arientinum L. (Leguminosae). Rec: Il Ν 590, Batr 131. PN: Erebinthus, Ervum, Orobus, Ervilia.
19. Κύαμος (Kyamos), Vicia faba L. (Leguminosae). Rec: Il Ν 590, Batr 125. ST: Cyamosis. PN: Cyamoid, Cyamopsis, Cyamosis, Cyamus. AN: Cyamichona, Cyamiomactra, Cyamium, Cyamobolus, Cyamocarcinus, Cyamodus, Cyamon, Cyamophila, Cyamotrox, Cyamus.
f. wild plants
20. Αγαλλίς (Agallis), Gladiolus communis L. (Iridaceae). Rec: Hymn Dem 8, Hymn Dem 426. ST: Agalloch. PN: Agallocha. AN: Agallia, Agalliastes, Agalliopsis.
21. Άκανθα (Akantha), Αcanthus spinosus L. (Acanthaceae). Rec: Od ε 328. ST: Acanth, Acanthamebiasis, Acanthesthesia, Acanthichthyosis, Acanthion, Acanthite, Acanthobolus, Acanthoceratodermia, Acanthocheilonemiasis, Acanthocladus, Acanthocyte, Acanthology, Acantholysis, Acanthoma, Acanthopelix, Acanthopore, Acanthosis, Acanthosphenote, Acanthosphere, Acanthostegous, Acanthostyle, Acanthous, Acanthozooid, Acanthulus, Adenoacanthoma, Choreoacanthocytosis, Oligacanthus, Paracanthoma. PN: Acantha, Acanthephippium, Acanthobotrya, Acanthocalyx, Acanthocarpha, Acanthocarpus, Acanthocarya, Acanthocephalus, Acanthodium, Acanthoglosum, Acantholacna, Acantholepis, Acantholimon, Acanthominthe, Acanthonema, Acanthonychia, Acanthopanax, Acanthophoenix, Acanthophora, Acanthophyllum, Acanthophytum, Acanthophippium, Acanthoprasium, Acanthorhiza, Acanthosicyos, Acanthosperma, Acanthospermum, Acanthospora, Acanthostachys, Acanthostemma, Acanthostigma, Acanthoxanthium, Acanthus, Anacanthus, Cryptacanthus, Cystacanthus, Daedalacanthus, Oligacanthous, Oxyacantha. AN: Acantha, Acanthacris, Acanthalagma, Acanthamoeba, Acanthaphritis, Acantharachne, Acantharadus, Acanthararchus, Acantharia, Acanthaspidiotus, Acanthaster, Acantheis, Acanthella, Acanthenchelys, Acanthephyra, Acantherpestres, Acantherus, Acantheurypon, Acanthias, Acanthicus, Acanthilis, Acanthinoides, Acanthinus, Acanthion, Acanthiophilus, Acanthis, Acanthisitta, Acanthistius, Acanthiza, Acanthobatis, Acanthobdella, Acanthobolus, Acanthobothrium, Acanthobranchia, Acanthobruchus, Acanthocamaria, Acanthocasis, Acanthocephalus, Acanthoceras, Acanthocerus, Acanthocheilonema, Acanthochiasma, Acanthochoerus, Acanthochromis, Acanthocladia, Acanthoclinus, Acanthoconops, Acanthocordax, Acanthocorythium, Acanthocottus, Acanthocybium, Acanthocyclops, Acanthocyclus, Acanthocystis, Acanthodactylus, Acanthodes, Acanthodiaptomus, Acanthodiphrus, Acanthodoris, Acanthodoryctes, Acanthoglossus, Acanthoiulus, Acantholapitha, Acantholarcus, Acantholissonia, Acantholonche, Acantholybas, Acantholyctus, Acanthometra, Acanthometriotes, Acanthomolgus, Acanthomys, Acanthonema, Acanthonotus, Acanthophallus, Acanthophis, Acanthophlegma, Acanthopholis, Acanthophoria, Acanthophorus, Acanthophyes, Acanthophyllum, Acanthopsyche, Acanthopteri, Acanthoptychoceras, Acanthopus, Acanthopygaeus, Acanthorhodeus, Acanthorhynchus, Acanthosoma, Acanthosphenopsilus, Acanthospora, Acanthostelis, Acanthostepheia, Acanthostracion, Acanthotelson, Acanthothericles, Acanthotoca, Acanthurus, Acanthus, Acanthyllis, Cheiracanthium, Cheiracanthus, Cricacanthus, Cryptacanthodes, Cryptacanthoides, Ctenacanthus, Cystacanth, Cystacanthus, Diphyacantha, Heteracantha, Heteracanthi, Holacanthida, Holacanthodes, Holacanthus, Homacanthi, Palaeacanthocephala, Paracanthoceras, Paracanthonchus, Rhabdacanthia.
22. Ασφόδελος (Asphodelos), Asphodelus albus Mill. (Xanthorrhoeaceae). Rec: Od λ 539, Od λ 573, Od ω 13, Hymn Herm 221, Hymn Herm 344. PN: Αsphodelus, Asphodeline.
23. Ίον (Ion), Viola odorata L. (Violaceae). Rec: Od ε 72, Hymn Aphr 18, Hymn Dem 6, Epic 6. ST: Iochroite, Iod, Iodalgin, Iodamide, Iodammonium, Iodantipirin, Iodargyrite, Iodarsenious, Iodate, Iodation, Iodembolite, Iodemia, Iodidion, Iodimetry, Iodinophil, Iodite, Iodo, Iodoamylum, Iodoantipyrine, Iodobromite, Iodochloride, Iodocholesterol, Iodocresol, Iodocyanogen, Iododerma, Iododichloride, Iodoembolite, Iodoeosin, Iodoethane, Iodoethyl, Iodoeugenol, Iodogenic, Iodoglycerin, Iodognosis, Iodogorgoic acid, Iodohematin, Iodohemol, Iodohydrargyrate, Iodohydrargyrite, Iodohydric, Iodolography, Iodolysin, Iodomethane, Iodomethyl, Iodometry, Iodonium, Iodophen, Iodophenochloral, Iodophenol, Iodophile, Iodophore, Iodophthisis, Iodoprotein, Iodopsin, Iodopyrin, Iodospermin, Iodospongin, Iodostrychnine, Iodotheobromin, Iodotherapy, Iodothymol, Iodothyrein, Iodotyrosine, Iodoxy, Iodozone, Iodum, Iodurase, Ioduria, Iodyrite. PN: Iochroma, Ionopsis, Jodanthus, Jodina, Jodinia, Jodes, Jonidium, Jonopsis. AN: Iodamoeba, Iodes, Iodomonas, Iodopleura, Ioessa, Ioglena, Iois.
24. Λείριον (Leirion), Lilium candidum L. (Liliaceae). Rec: Il Γ 151, Il Ν 830, Hymn Dem 427. PN: Apodolirium, Chamaelirium, Dasylirion, Encholirium, Ixiolily, Ixiolirion, Lily, Lirianthe, Liriodendron, Liriope, Liriosma, Stropholirion. AN: Lilaea.
25. Μαλάχη (Malache), Malva sylvestris L. (Malvaceae). Rec: Batr 161. ST: Malachite. PN: Malachadenia, Malache, Malachium, Malachodendron, Malachra, Maluchia. AN: Malachius.
26. Μήκων (Mekon), Papaver rhoeas L. (Papaveraceae). Rec: Il Θ 306, Il Ξ 499. ST: Meconalgia, Meconate, Meconeuropathia, Meconic acid, Meconidine, Meconin, Meconiorrhea, Meconisin, Meconism, Meconium, Meconology, Meconophagism. PN: Dendromecon, Meconella, Meconidium, Meconopsis, Meconostigma. AN: Meconidium, Mecophilus.
27. Νάρκισσος (Narcissos), Narcissus tazetta L. (Amaryllidaceae). Rec: Hymn Dem 8, Hymn Dem 428, Epic 6. ST: Narcissine, Narcissism, Narcissist, Narcissistic. PN: Narcis, Narcissus.
28. Υάκινθος (Hyacinthos), Hyacinthus orientalis L. (Asparagaceae). Sugg.: Hyacinthus orientalis (Euchholz 1848), Gladiolus communis (Sprengel, 1817), Iris germanica (Voss, 1856[a or b?]). Rec: Il Ξ 348, Od ζ 231, Od ψ 158, Hymn Dem 7, Hymn Dem 426, Hymn Pan 25, Epic 6. ST: Hyacine, Hyacinthine. PN: Hyacinthus.
g. Cultivated plants
29. Κολοκύντη (Kolokynthe), Cucurbita pepo L. (Cucurbitaceae). Rec: Batr 53. ST: Colocynthein, Colocynthidism, Colocynthilline, Colocynthin, Colocynthite, Colocynthitin. PN: Colocynth, Colocynthis, Coloquinta. AN: Colocynthiella.
30. Κράμβη (Krambe), Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae). Rec: Batr 53, Batr 163, Batr 228, Batr 237. PN: Crambe, Cynocrambe. AN: Crambe, Crambidion, Crambis, Crambomprphus, Crambus.
31. Κρόμμυον (Krommyon), Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae). Rec: Il Λ 630, Od τ 233. ST: Cromnyomancy. PN: Cromyorrhizon. AN: Cromnyodrymus, Cromnyostaurus.
32. Πράσον (Prason), Allium ampeloprasum L. (Amaryllidaceae). Sugg.: Allium ampeloprasum (Sprengel, 1817). Rec: Od η 127, Od ω 247. ST: Prasophagy, Prasolite, Pratum. PN: Prasanthea, Prasiola, Prasium, Prasophyllum. AN: Prasoidea, Prasona, Prasospora, Prateus.
33. Ραφανίς (Raphanis), Raphanus raphanistrum L. (Brassicaceae). Rec: Batr 53. ST: Raphania, Raphanidin, Raphanol, Raphanedon. PN: Raphanus, Rapa, Rapanea, Raphania, Raphanistrum, Raphe, Rapistum, Rapunculus, Rapuntium. AN: Raphanocera, Rhaphanocrinus.
34. Σεύτλον (Seftlon), Beta vulgaris L. (Amaranthaceae). Rec: Batr 54, Batr 162, Batr 209. PN: Seutera. AN: Seuthes.
35. Σήσαμον (Sesamon), Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae). Rec: Il Β 853, Batr 36. ST: Sesamin, Sesamoid, Sesamoiditis, Sesamol, Sesamolin. PN: Sesamoides, Sesamopteris, Sesamothamnus, Sesamum. AN: Sesamia, Sesamodon.
h. Spinning-dyeing plants
36. Bύβλος (Byblos), Cyperus papyrus L. (Cyperaceae). Rec: Od φ 391. ST: Bible, Biblioclasm, Bibliogenesis, Bibliogony, Bibliography, Bibliolatry, Bibliolite, Bibliology, Bibliomania, Bibliotheca, Bibliophobia. PN: Byblis. AN: Byblia, Biblis.
37. Κρόκος (Crocos), Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae). Rec: Il Θ 1, Il Ξ 348, Il Τ 1, Il Ψ 227, Il Ω 695, Hymn Dem 178, Hymn Pan 25, Epic 6. ST: Crocein, Croconic acid, Crocose. PN: Crocanthemum, Crocidium, Crociseris, Crocodia, Crocosmia, Crocoxylon, Crocus. AN: Croce, Crocias, Crocogma, Crocomela, Crocomorphus.
38. Λίνον (Linon), Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae). Rec: Il Β 529, Il Β 830, Il Ε 487, Il Ι 661, Il Π 408, Il Σ 352, Il Υ 128, Il Ψ 254, Il Ω 210, Od η 198, Od ν 73, Od ν 118, Hymn Apol 104. ST: Ligne, Line, Linea, Lineus, Linie, Linin, Linioplast, Linitis, Linoed, Linography, Linoleic, Linoleum, Linometer, Linon, Linosporus, Linostole, Linous, Linum, Linoxanthin, Linoxyn. PN: Asterolinum, Linagrostis, Linanthus, Linaria, Linarioides, Liniphyllum, Linopsis, Linopteris, Linospadix, Linostigma, Linostoma, Linosyris, Linozostis, Linum. AN: Linaria, Linerges, Lineus, Linidus, Linobia, Linoclostis, Linodesmus, Linogeraeus, Linognathus, Linolaomus, Linomadarus, Linophaga, Linophryne, Linopneustes, Linoporella, Linoptes, Linotaenia, Linotoma, Linozosta, Linuche, Linurgus, Linus, Linyphantes, Linyphia, Linyphiodes.
39. Σπάρτον (Sparton), Spartium junceum L. (Leguminosae). Rec: Il Β 135, Od β 102, Od δ 245, Od ζ 179, Od ζ 269, Od τ 147, Hymn Apol 121, Hymn Herm 301, Hymn Herm 306. ST: Sparteine, Sparterie, Spartostatics, Spiradenitis, Spiradenoma, Spiraein, Spiral, Spiralism, Spirality, Spiralization, Spiralozooid, Spirama, Spiranthy, Spiraster, Spiraxon, Spire, Spireme, Spiricle, Spirignath, Spirillemia, Spirillolysis, Spirillotropism, Spirochetemia, Spirochetogenous, Spirochetolysis, Spirocheturia, Spirocyclic, Spirocyst, Spirographidin, Spirographin, Spiroid, Spiroil, Spiroma, Spiropentane, Spirophototropous, Spirosparta, Spirotheca. PN: Acrospira, Monospirous, Sparganium, Sparganophorus, Spartianthus, Spartina, Spartothamnus, Spartum, Spiracantha, Spiradiclis, Spiraea, Spiraearia, Spiralepis, Spiranthera, Spiranthes, Spirastigma, Spirhymenia, Spiridens, Spirillospora, Spirobacteria, Spirocarpaea, Spirocarpus, Spirochaeta, Spirodela, Spirogyra, Spironema, Spirophora, Spirophyton, Spiroplasma, Spirosoma, Spirospermum, Spirostylis, Spirotrichonympha, Spirulina. AN: Sparta, Spartaeus, Spartecerus, Spartiniphaga, Spartolus, Spartus, Spira, Spirachtha, Spiracme, Spiractaeon, Spirama, Spirastigma, Spiratropis, Spireme, Spirillum, Spirobolus, Spirobranchia, Spirocerca, Spirocerus, Spirocodon, Spirocyathus, Spirodesmos, Spirographis, Spirometra, Spiromonas, Spironema, Spiropagurus, Spirophilometra, Spirophora, Spiroplasma, Spiroptera, Spirostomum, Spirostylus, Spirula, Spirura.
i. Aromatic plants
40. Γλήχων (Glechon), Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae). Rec: Hymn Dem 209. PN: Glechma, Glechoma, Glechon.
41. Καλαμίνθη (Kalaminthe), Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae). Rec: Batr 224. ST: Minty. PN: Acanthominthe, Calamint, Calamintha, Mentha, Mint, Minthidium, Minthostachys. AN: Minthea.
42. Ορίγανον (Origanon), Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae). Rec: Batr 256. ST: Origaninene. PN: Origanum.
43. Ώκιμον (Ocimon), Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae). Records: Batr 214. ST: Ocimene. PN: Ocimum, Ocyme.
j. Medicinal plants
44. Μ<ώλυ (Moly), Αllium nigrum L. (Amaryllidaceae). Sugg.: Αllium dioscuridis (Sibthorp, 1813), Αllium nigrum (Sprengel, 1817), Allium victorialis (Εuchholz, 1848), Allium magicum (Fraas 1845), Mandragora officinalis (Dierbach 1833), Helledorus niger (Triller, 1716; Schmiedeberg, 1918; Haviara-Karachaliou, 1995), Helleborus οrientalis (Halacsy, 1904), Galanthus nivalis (Plaitakis and Duvoisin, 1983), Moly angustifolium (Dodoneus et al., 1644). Rec: Od κ 305. ST: Molysite, Molysmophobia. PN: Moly. AN: Molychnus, Molycria, Molynocoelia, Molytes.
45. Νηπενθές (Nepenthes), Papaver somniferum L. (Papaveraceae). Sugg.: Papaver somniferum (Wedel and Rottenberger, 1688; Friedreich, 1855; Moazzo, 1985). Rec: Od δ 221. ST: Nepenthic. PN: Nepenthes. AN: Nepenthophilus.
46. Παιωνία (Paeonia), Paeonia officinalis L. (Paeoniaceae). Sugg.: Gentiana centaurium (Wedel and Rottenberger, 1688). Rec: Il Ε 401, Il Ε 900, Il Λ 846. ST: Paeonin. PN: Paeony. AN: Paeon, Paeonodes.
k. Shrubs
47. Αιμασιά (Haemasia), Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae). Rec: Od σ 359, Od ω 224.
48. Βάτος (Vatos), Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae). Rec: Il Β 813, Od ω 230, Hymn Herm 190. ST: Batology, Batonoma, Batophobia. PN: Bataceae, Batis, Batodendron, Sarcobatus. AN: Batia, Batina, Batinoscelis, Batis, Batobiomorphus, Batobius, Batocrinus, Batodes, Batodromeus, Batoidimorpha, Batoscelis, Batosphaera, Batostomella, Batoteuthis, Batotheca, Batoxylina, Batozonus.
49. Δάφνη (Daphne), Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae). Rec: Od ι 183, Hymn Apol 396, Hymn Dion 9, Hymn Herm 108. ST: Daphnandrin, Daphnetin, Daphnism, Daphnite, Daphnolin, Daphnomancy. PN: Cyanodaphne, Daphnandra, Daphne, Daphnidium, Daphnikon, Daphniphyllum, Daphnitis, Daphnopsis, Rhododaphne. AN: Daphnaea, Daphnaeoderma, Daphnia, Daphnis, Daphnite, Daphnusa.
50. Κέδρος (Cedros), Juniperus oxycedrus L. (Cupressaceae). Rec: Il Ω 192, Od ε 60. ST: Cedricite, Cedrium, Cedrol, Libocedrine. PN: Caryocedrus, Cedar, Cedrella, Cedrelate, Cedron, Cedronella, Cedrostis, Cedrota, Cedrus, Libocedrus, Oxycedar, Oxycedrus. AN: Cedrinus, Cedrocrypta.
51. Κισσός (Cissos), Hedera helix L. (Araliaceae). Rec: Il Ζ 298, Il Λ 223, Od ι 346, Od ξ 78, Hymn Dion 1, Hymn Dion 9, Hymn Dion 40. ST: Cissampeline, Cissoid. PN: Ampelocissus, Cissampelopsis, Cissampelos, Cissoanthonomus, Cissus, Parthenocissus. AN: Cisseis, Cissetes, Cissoanthonomus, Cissodicasticus, Cissomela, Cissophagus, Cissophyllus.
52. Λύγος (Lygos), Vitex agnus-castus L. (Lamiaceae). Rec: Il Λ 105, Od ι 427, Od κ 166, Hymn Dion 13, Hymn Herm 410. PN: Lygeum, Lygia, Lyginia, Lyginodendron, Lyginopteris, Lygistoides, Lygistum, Lygodesmia, Lygodisodea, Lygodium. AN: Lygerus, Lyginus, Lygisma, Lygistopterus, Lygodactylus, Lygodium, Lygosoma, Lygus.
53. Μυρίκη (Myrice), Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Karst. (Tamaricaceae). Rec: Il Ζ 39, Il Κ 466, Il Κ 467, Il Φ 18, Il Φ 350, Hymn Herm 81. ST: Myricetine, Myricin, Myricitrin, Myricyl, Myricylic. PN: Myrica, Myricaria. AN: Myrice.
54. Μυρσίνη (Myrsine), Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae). Rec: Il Β 616, Hymn Herm 81. ST: Myrtol. PN: Asteromyrtus, Myra, Myrcia, Myrsidrum, Myrsine, Myrsiphyllum, Myrte, Myrtillus, Myrtine, Myrtiphyllum, Myrtite, Myrtle, Myrtus, Rhodomyrtus. AN: Myrsilus, Myrsinus, Myrtale, Myrtilus, Myrtis, Myrtonius, Myrtoteras, Myrus.
55. Ρόδον (Rhodon), Rosa centifolia L. (Rosaceae). Rec: Il Α 477, Il Ζ 175, Il Ι 707, Il Ψ 186, Il Ω 788, Od β 1, Od δ 306, Od θ 1, Od κ 187, Od ο 189, Hymn Dem 6, Hymn Dem 419, Hymn Dem 422, Hymn Dem 427, Hymn Hel 6, Epik. 6. ST: Rhodochroisite, Rhodochrome, Rhodocrinite, Rhodocyte, Rhodogenesis, Rhodohemin, Rhodoleucus, Rhodolite, Rhodology, Rhodomel, Rhodonite, Rhodophane, Rhodophosphite, Rhodophylaxis, Rhodophyll, Rhodophyllite, Rhodoplast, Rhodoporfyrin, Rhodopsin, Rhodopterin, Rhodoretin, Rhodostaurotic, Rhodotilite, Rhodotoxin, Rhodous, Rhodoxanthin, Rhodusite. PN: Cynorrhodon, Rhodanthe, Rhodanthemum, Rhodamnia, Rhodiola, Rhodobacteria, Rhodochiton, Rhodocistus, Rhodococcus, Rhodocoma, Rhododaphne, Rhododendron, Rhodolaena, Rhodoleia, Rhodoleucus, Rhodomela, Rhodomicrobium, Rhodomenia, Rhodomyrtus, Rhodonema, Rhodophora, Rhodophyceae, Rhodophyta, Rhodopsis, Rhodora, Rhodorrhiza, Rhodospatha, Rhodospermae, Rhodosphaera, Rhodoatachys, Rhodostoma, Rhodothamnus, Rhodotypus, Rhodoxys, Rhodymenia. AN: Rhodobius, Rhodobothrium, Rhodocephala, Rhodocephalus, Rhodocera, Rhodocharis, Rhodocleptria, Rhodoclia, Rhodocrinus, Rhodocyathus, Rhododactyla, Rhododerma, Rhododrilus, Rhodoessa, Rhodohylaeus, Rhodope, Rhodopechys, Rhodophora, Rhodopis, Rhodopsalta, Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodopyga, Rhodosoma, Rhodospirillum, Rhodostethia, Rhodothece.
56. Ρωψ (Rhops), Quercus robur L. (Fagaceae). Rec: Il Ν 199, Il Φ 559, Il Ψ 122, Od κ 166, Od ξ 49, Od π 47, Od ξ 473, Hymn Pan 8. PN: Nanorrhops, Rhopium. AN: Rhopophagus, Rhopsotettix.
57. Φυλίη (Phylie), Olea europaea var. sylvestris (Mill.) Lehr (Oleaceae). Sugg.: Rhamnus alaternus (Billerbeck, 1824). Rec: Od ε 477.
l. Trees
58.Αίγειρος (Aegiros), Populus nigra L. (Salicaceae). Sugg.: Populus tremula (Friedreich, 1871). Rec: Il Δ 482, Il Δ 485, Od ε 64, Od ε 239, Od ζ 292, Od η 106, Od ι 141, Od κ 510, Od ρ 208. ST: Aegirine, Aegirite. PN: Aegerita, Aegirine, Aegirite, Aegyrite. AN: Aegirus.
59. Αχερωίς (Acherois), Populus alba L. (Salicaceae). Rec: Il Ν 389, Il Π 482.
60. Δρυς (Drys), Quercus pubescens Willd. (Fagaceae). Sugg.: Quercus robur and Quercus pendulata (Sprengel, 1817), Quercus ilex (Sibthorp, 1813). Rec: Il Λ 86, Il Λ 494, Il Ν 389, Il Π 482, Il Μ 132, Il Ξ 398, Il Ξ 414, Il Π 633, Il Χ 126, Il Ψ 118, Il Ψ 315, Il Ψ 328, Od ι 186, Od ν 409, Od ξ 12, Od ξ 328, Od ξ 425, Od τ 163, Od τ 297, Od τ 574, Od φ 43, Hymn Aphr 264, Hymn Aphr 266, Hymn Herm 349, Epic 6. ST: Drymodes, Drymophyte. PN: Dryad, Dryandra, Dryas, Drymaria, Drymoda, Drymoglossum, Drymonia, Drymophila, Drymophloeus, Drymosphace, Dryobalanops, Dryopteris, Drypis, Dryophyllum, Drypteris. AN: Dryadocoris, Dryadophis, Dryalus, Dryas, Dryinus, Drymaea, Drymarchon, Drymeia, Drymo, Drymobates, Drymochares, Drymodes, Drymodytops, Drymoeca, Drymomys, Drymobius, Drymonius, Drymus, Drymusa, Dryobates, Dryochoceras, Dryocoetes, Dryocolaptes, Dryocopus, Dryodromas, Dryolestes, Dryomys, Dryomyza, Dryope, Dryophilus, Dryophis, Dryophoneus, Dryophthorus, Dryophytes, Dryopithecus, Dryops, Dryopteris, Dryoscopus, Dryotomicus, Dryotomus, Dryotriorchis.
61. Ελάτη (Elate), Abies cephalonica Loudon (Pinaceae). Sugg.: Pinus picea (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il Ε 560, Ιλ Ξ 287, Il Ξ 289, Il Ω 450, Il Ω 454, Od β 424, Od ε 239, Od μ 172, Od ο 289, Od τ 38, Od χ 267, Hymn Aphr 264, Hymn Aphr 266. ST: Elatic (acid), Elatolite. PN: Elate, Elatine, Elatinoides, Elatostema. AN: Elatia, Elatobia, Elatocoelus, Elatophilus, Elatus.
62. Θύον (Thyon), Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast. (Cupressaceae). Sugg.: Citrus (Plinius, 1469), Thuja orientalis (Theophrastus, 1483), Thuja cupressoides (Sprengel, 1817) Thuja cupressoides (Billerbeck, 1824). Rec: Od δ 121, Od ε 60, Od ε 264, Od φ 52, Hymn Aphr 59, Hymn Apol 87, Hymn Dem 244, Hymn Dem 288, Hymn Dem 331, Hymn Dem 355, Hymn Dem 385, Hymn Dem 490. AN: Thyone.
63. Ιτέα (Itea), Salix alba L. (Salicaceae). Rec: Il Φ 350, Od κ 510. ST: Iteology. PN: Itea. AN: Itea.
64. Κλήθρη (Clethre), Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. (Betulaceae). Sugg.: Alnus oblongata (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Od ε 64, Od ε 239. PN: Clethra, Clathrocystis, Clematocletra, Clethra, Clethroa, Clethropsis, Pentaclethra. AN: Clethraphis, Clethrionomys, Clethrobius.
65. Κυπάρισσος (Cyparissos), Cupressus sempervirens L. (Cupressaceae). Rec: Il Β 519, Il Β 593, Od ε 64, Od ρ 340. PN: Cyparissias. AN: Cyparissias, Cyparissocrinus.
66. Μελίη (Melie), Fraxinus excelsior L. (Oleaceae). Sugg.: Fraxinus ornus (Walter and Mabberley, 1999). Rec: Il Δ 47, Il Δ 165, Il Ε 655, Il Ε 666, Il Ε 694, Il Ζ 449, Il Ν 178, Il Π 143, Il Ν 597, Il Π 767, Il Π 814, Il Ρ 9, Il Τ 361, Il Τ 390, Il Υ 272, Il Υ 322, Il Υ 277, Il Φ 162, Il Φ 169, Il Φ 172, Il Φ 174, Il Φ 178, Il Χ 133, Il Χ 225, Il Χ 293, Il Χ 328, Il Ω 274, Od γ 400, Od ξ 281, Od ρ 339, Od χ 259, Od χ 276. PN: Melia, Meliosma, Melilotus, Melosa, Melianthus. AN: Melia, Meliboeus, Melichrus, Melichnetes, Melicerta, Melicleptria, Melidectes, Melierax, Melignostes, Melognomon.
67. Οϊσύα (Oesya), Salix alba var. vitellina (L.) Stokes (Salicaceae). Rec: Od ε 256. AN: Oesia, Oesocerus.
68. Οξύη (Oxye), Fagus sylvatica L. (Fagaceae). Rec: Il Ε 50, Il Η 11, Il Θ 514, Il Ν 584, Il Ξ 443, Il Ο 536, Il Ο 742, Il Π 309, Od τ 33, Od υ 306. PN: Oxyacantha, Oxyanthus, Oxycedar, Oxycoccus, Oxydendron, Oxylobium, Oxymitra, Oxyphyll, Oxypolis, Oxytriphillon, Oxytropis. AN: Oxya.
69. Πεύκη (Peuce), Pinus halepensis Mill. (Pinaceae). Sugg.: Pinus picea (Sprengel, 1817), Pinus maritima (Friedreich, 1871; Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il Α 51, Il Δ 129, Il Λ 494, Il Λ 845, Il Ψ 328, Epigr 10. ST: Peucedanin, Peucine, Peucyl. PN: Chamaepeuce, Peucedanum, Peucephyllum. AN: Peucaea, Peucestes, Peucetia, Peucobius, Peukinococcus.
70. Πίτυς (Pitys), Pinus pinea L. (Pinaceae). Sugg.: Pinus larix (Sprengel, 1817), Pinus pinea (Sibthorp, 1813; Euchholz, 1848), Pinus laricio (Theophrastus, 1483), Larix sp. (Friedreich, 1871). Rec: Il Ν 390, Il Π 483, Od ι 186. PN: Calamopitys, Pityopsis, Prumnopitys. AN: Pityobious, Pityocampa, Pityogenes, Pityohyphantes, Pityomyrmex, Pityophagus, Pityophthorus, Pitys.
71. Πλατάνιστος (Platanistos), Platanus orientalis L. (Platanaceae). Sugg.: Acer campestre (Voss, 1856[a or b?]). Rec: Il Β 307. PN: Platanaria, Platanocephalus, Platanthera, Platanus. AN: Platanaster, Platanista.
72. Πρίνος / Άκυλος (Prinos / Akylos), Quercus coccifera L. (Fagaceae). Rec: Od κ 242. PN: Akylopsis, Prinos, Prine. AN: Priniops, Prinobius.
73. Πτελέα (Ptelea), Ulmus glabra Huds. (Ulmaceae). Rec: Il Β 594, Il Β 697, Il Ζ 419, Il Φ 242, Il Φ 350. ST: Ptelein, Pteleorrhine. PN: Euptelea, Ptelea, Ptelidium. AN: Pteleobius, Pteleon.
74. Πύξος (Pyxos), Buxus sempervirens L. (Buxaceae). Rec: Il Ω 269. ST: Pyx, Pyxidate, Pyxie, Pyxis. PN: Buxus, Pyxidanthera, Pyxidaria, Pyxidium, Pyxie, Pyxine, Pyxipoma. AN: Pyxidiceras, Pyxidion, Pyxidium, Pyxidocephalus, Pyxidocrinus, Pyxidognathus, Pyxidophyllum, Pyxinia, Pyxion, Pyxoides.
75. Φηγός (Phegos), Quercus trojana Webb (Fagaceae). Sugg.: Quercus esculus (Friedreich, 1871; Sibthorp, 1813), Fagus castanea (Euchholz, 1848). Rec: Il Ε 693, Il Ε 838, Il Ζ 237, Il Η 22, Il Η 60, Il Ι 354, Il Λ 170, Il Π 767, Il Φ 549. PN: Epiphegus, Fagopyron, Fagus, Phegopteris. AN: Phegomyia, Phegoneus, Phegornis.
m. Fruit trees
76. Άμπελος (Ampelos), Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae). Rec: Il Σ 561, Il Σ 562, Od ε 69, Od η 121, Od ι 110, Od ι 133, Od ω 343, Hymn Dion 39. ST: Ampelideous, Ampelite, Ampelography, Ampelotherapy. PN: Ampelanus, Ampelid, Ampelocissus, Ampelodaphne, Ampelodesma, Ampeloprasum, Ampelopsis, Ampelosicyos, Ampelygonum, Cissampelopsis, Cissampelos, Micrampelis. AN: Ampelion, Ampelis, Ampelisca, Ampelodesmus, Ampelophaga, Ampelophilus.
77. Αμυγδαλή (Amygdale), Prunus amygdaloides Schltr. (Rosaceae). Rec: Il Ω 753, Hymn Apol 36. ST: Αmygdala, Amygdalaceous, Amygdalase, Amygdalate, Amygdale, Amygdalitis, Amygdalectomy, Amygdalin, Amygdaloglossus, Amygdaloid, Amygdalolith, Amygdaloncus, Amygdalopathy, Amygdalophyllum, Amygdalose, Amygdalothripsis, Amygdalotome, Amygdophenin, Amygdule, Periamygdalitis. PN: Amygdalus. AN: Amygdalaceous, Amygdalina, Amygdalites, Amygdalophyllidium, Amygdalotheca, Amygdalum, Amygdalus.
78. Άχερδος (Acherdos), Pyrus amygdaliformis Vill. (Rosaceae). Sugg.: Pyrus achras, Mespilus monogyna (Sibthorp, 1813). Rec: Od ξ 10. AN: Acherdocerus, Acherdus.
79. Ελαία (Elaea), Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae). Rec: Il Κ 577, Il Ν 612, Il Ξ 171, Il Ρ 53, Il Σ 350, Il Ψ 186, Il Ψ 281, Il Ω 587, Od β 339, Od γ 466, Od ε 236, Od ε 477, Od ζ 79, Od ζ 96, Od ζ 219, Od η 116, Od ι 320, Od ι 378, Od ι 394, Od κ 364, Od κ 450, Od λ 590, Od ν 102, Od ν 122, Od ν 346, Od ν 372, Od τ 505, Od ψ 195, Od ψ 190, Hymn Aphr 61, Hymn Dem 100, Hymn Dem 23, Batr 180. ST: Elaeoblast, Elaeocerate, Elaeodic, Elaeodochon, Elaeolate, Elaeolite, Elaeomargaric, Elaeometer, Elaeomyenchysis, Elaeoplast, Elaeoptene, Elaeostearic, Elaic, Elaidate, Elain, Elaioma, Elaiopathy, Eleain, Elaioplankton, Elaioplast, Elaiosome, Eleoma, Eleocyte, Eleolite, Eleometer, Eleotherapy, Eleothorax, Oleoamid, Oleandromycin, Olease, Oleate, Oleobalsamic, Oleobutyrometer, Oleochrysotherapy, Oleocreosote, Oleocyst, Oleodistearin, Oleograph, Oleolithograph, Oleoma, Oleomargarine, Oleometer, Oleoperitoneography, Oleophilic, Oleophobic, Oleopneumatic, Oleosome, Oleosus, Oleotherapy, Oleothorax, Oleotine, Sinapeleum, Xylol. PN: Elaea, Elaeagnus, Elaeis, Elaeobalanus, Elaeocarpus, Elaeochytris, Elaeococeos, Elaeocrinus, Elaeodendron, Elaeoselinum, Elaeosticta, Elaionema, Elais, Hydrolea, Olea, Oleander, Oleandra, Oleaster, Oliva. AN: Elaea, Elaenia, Elaeocerthia, Elaeocrinus, Elaeodes, Elaeodopsis, Elaeophora, Elaeus, Elainea, Elainia, Elainopsis, Oleacina.
80. Ερινεός (Erineos), Ficus carica var. caprificus Risso (Moraceae). Rec: Il Ζ 433, Il Λ 167, Il Φ 37, Od μ 103, Od μ 432. PN: Erinacea, Erineum, Erinia, Εrinocyce, Erinus. AN: Erineophilus, Erineus.
81. Κάρυον (Caryon), Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae). Rec: Batr 31, Batr 265. ST: Akaryomastigont, Archikaryon, Caryenchyma, Caryin, Caryinite, caryoblast, Caryoblastus, Caryocerite, Caryochrome, Caryocinesis, Caryoclasis, Caryogamy, Caryologic, Caryolysis, Caryomicrosoma, Caryomitome, Caryon, Caryophyl, Caryophyllene, Caryopilite, Caryoplasm, Caryopsis, Caryorrhexis, Caryosome, Caryotheca, Caryotin, Caryozymogen, Dicaryocyte, Eucaryote, Heterokaryosis, Homocaryotic, karyaspis, Karyaster, Karyenchyma, Karyobasis, Karyoblast, karyochromatophil, Karyochrome, Karyochylema, karyoclasis, Karyocyte, Karyogamy, Karyogen, Karyogenesis, Karyogonad, Karyogram, Karyohyaloplasm, Karyoid, Karyokinesis, Karyolobic, Karyology, Karyolymph, Karyolysis, Karyomastigont Karyomegaly, Karyomere, Karyometry, Karyomexis, Karyomicrosome, Karyomite, Karyomitome, Karyomitoplasm, Karyomitosis, Karyomorphism, Karyon, Karyophage, Karyoplasm, Karyopyknosis, Karyorrhexis, Karyoschisis, Karyosome, Karyospherical, Karyostasis, Karyostenosis, Karyosymphysis, Karyosystematics, Karyota, Karyotheca, Karyotin, Karyotype, Karyozoic, Metakaryocyte, Perikaryon, Procaryote, Syncaryocyte, Synkaryon, Synkaryophyte. PN: Astrocaryon, Carya, Caryocar, Caryocedrus, Caryodaphne, Caryolobis, Caryolopha, Caryolophus, Caryophyllaceae, Caryophyllum, Caryopteris, Caryota, Caryotaxus, Pterocarya. AN: Caryanda, Caryatis, Carydion, Caryedon, Caryoblastus, Caryoborus, Caryocatactes, Caryochloa, Caryocrinus, Caryocystis, Caryoderma, Caryodes, Caryogyps, Caryomyia, Caryon, Caryophanon, Caryophylaeus, Caryophyllia, Caryostaurus, Caryothraustes, Caryotypes, Karyamoeba, Karyaster, Karyolysus, Karyophyllites.
82. Κράνεια (Craneia), Cornus mas L. (Cornaceae). Rec: Il Π 767, Od κ 242, Hymn Herm 460. AN: Craneiobia, Craneopsylla.
83. Λωτός (Lotos), Celtis australis L. (Cannabaceae). Sugg.: Ziziphus lotus (Sprengel, 1817), Rhamnus lotus (Sprengel, 1817). Rec: Od ι 93, Od ι 94, Od ι 97, Od ι 102. PN: Lote, Lotus. AN: Lotagnostus.
84. Μηλέα (Melea), Malus domestica Borkh (Rosaceae). Rec: Il Ι 542, Od η 115, Od λ 589, Od ω 340, Hymn Dem 4. ST: Melon, Meloncus, Melonemetin, Meloplasty, Meloschisis, Melotia. PN: Melo, Melobesia, Melocactus, Melocoton, Melocanna, Melodinus, Melon, Melongena, Melopepon, Melothria. AN: Melobates, Melobosis, Melocrinus, Melodes, Meloidogyne, Melongena, Melophagus, Melops, Melucha.
85. Μόρον (Moron), Morus alba L. or Morus nigra L. (Moraceae). Rec: Il Ξ 183, Od σ 298. ST: Morin, Morococcus, Moronolite, Moroxylic acid, Moroxylate, Morozymase, Morula, Morum. PN: Morea, Morocarpus, Morio, Morus. AN: Morea, Moron, Morus.
86. Όγχνη (Ochne), Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae). Rec: Od η 115, Od λ 589, Od ω 234, Od ω 340. PN: Ochna. AN: Ochnephila.
87. Ροϊά (Rhoia), Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae). Rec: Od η 115, Od λ 589, Hymn Dem 372, Hymn Dem 412.
88. Συκέα (Sycea), Ficus carica L. (Moraceae). Rec: Il Ε 902, Od η 116, Od λ 590, Od ω 341, Batr 31. ST: Sycite, Sycoceryl, Sycoma, Sycomancy, Sycophancy, Sycophant, Sycoretin, Sycose, Sycosis. PN: Erinosyce, Sycamine, Sycomore, Syconium, Sycopsis. AN: Sycalis, Sycarium, Sycetta, Sycia, Sycidium, Sycites, Sycobius, Sycocrinus, Sycodes, Sycon, Syconycteris, Syconycterobia, Sycophaga, Sycophantes, Sycophantia, Sycophantomorphus, Sycophyllum, Sycopteron, Sycosaurus, Sycotypus, Sycozoon.
89. Φοίνιξ (Phoenix), Phoenix dactylifera L. (Arecaceae). Rec: Od Ζ 163, Hymn Apol 18, Hymn Apol 117. ST: Phoenicin, Phoenicianism, Phoenicismus, Phoenicite, Phoenicity, Phoenicle, Phoenicochroite, Phoenicophaine, Phoenicophiline, Phoenixin. PN: Microphoenix, Phoenicanthemum, Phoenicaulis, Phoenix, Phoenixopus. AN: Phoeniciomyia, Phoenicircus, Phoenicladocera, Phoenicobates. Phoenicobius, Phoenicocrinus, Phoenicodrilus, Phoenicogenus, Phoeniconaias, Phoenicophaes, Phoenicophilus, Phoenicopterous, Phoenicopterus, Phoenicorodias, Phoenicosphaera, Phoeniculus, Phoenicurus, Phoenicus, Phoenissa.
| Group | Homeric Name | Scientific Name | Family | Records | Scientific terms | Plant names | Animal names |
| a. Fungi | 1. Ευρώτες | Aspergillus reptans | Trichocomaceae | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 |
| Total | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |||
| b. Water plants |
2. Δόναξ 3. Θρύον 4. Κάλαμος 5. Οξύσχοινος 6. Όροφος 7. Πράσον 8. Σχοίνος 9. Φύκος |
Arundo donax Imperata cylindrica Acorus calamus Cyperus capitatus Phragmites australis Potamogeton natans Juncus acutus Posidonia oceanica |
Poaceae Poaceae Acoraceae Cyperaceae Poaceae Potamogetonacea Juncaceae Posidoniaceae |
6 4 3 4 1 3 4 2 |
0 0 2 0 0 4 1 24 |
1 2 18 0 3 4 15 8 |
10 2 21 0 10 4 10 11 |
| Total | 27 | 31 | 51 | 68 | |||
| c. Cereals |
10. Ζειά 11. Κριθή 12. Όλυρα 13. Σίτος/πυρός |
Sorghum bicolor Hordeum vulgare Triticum spelta Triticum monococcum |
Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae |
2 20 2 35 |
3 3 0 12 |
2 7 1 10 |
2 5 1 15 |
| Total | 59 | 18 | 20 | 23 | |||
| d. Pasture plants |
14. Άγρωστις 15. Kύπειρον 16. Λωτός 17. Σέλινον |
Elymus repens Cyperus longus Trifolium medium Apium graveolens |
Poaceae Poaceae Leguminosae Apiaceae |
2 3 6 3 |
3 2 1 2 |
10 3 1 4 |
2 1 3 2 |
| Total | 13 | 8 | 18 | 8 | |||
| e. Legumes |
18. Ερέβινθος 19. Κύαμος |
Cicer arientinum Vicia faba |
Leguminosae Leguminosae |
2 2 |
0 1 |
4 4 |
0 10 |
| Total | 4 | 1 | 8 | 10 | |||
| f. Wild plants |
20. Αγαλλίς 21. Άκανθα 22. Ασφόδελος 23. Ίον 24. Λείριον 25. Μαλάχη 26. Μήκων 27. Νάρκισσος 28. Υάκινθος |
Gladiolus communis Acanthus spinosus Asphodelus albus Violao odorata Lilium candidum Malva silvestris Papaver rhoeas Narcisus tazetta Hyacinthus orientalis |
Iridaceae Acanthaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae Violaceae Liliaceae Malvaceae Papaveraceae Amaryllidaceae Asparagaceae |
2 1 5 4 3 1 2 3 7 |
1 28 0 69 0 1 12 4 2 |
1 39 2 8 12 6 5 2 1 |
3 120 0 7 1 1 2 0 0 |
| Total | 28 | 117 | 76 | 134 | |||
| NOTE: ONLY A PARTIAL TABLE FOR EXAMPLE ONLY | |||||||
The Homeric Person and Their Knowledge of Plants
In this study a total of 466 records corresponding to 89 different plant names were revealed after a thorough search of the Homeric epics. Most of them are related to the nowadays plants grown in the East Mediterranean area and their name still remain the same in modern Greek. Plants, besides being easily recognizable, are more familiar to people of that age due to their involvement in human life. The extraordinary use of plant names by Homer, indicates a considerable discriminative ability of different plan species and of their particular characteristics as well. As a result, such descriptions constituted a significant level of human knowledge, which still remains a valuable tool for those studying the nature (Kokkini et al., 1997).
All plant names were correlated to current plant taxa at different category levels. The data briefly given in Table 1 show that our knowledge of plants at the Age of Homer based on the epics focuses on 46 families. The reported plant families were in the descending order: Poaceae (74) > Oleaceae (66) > Fagaceae (53) > Rosaceae (33) > Pinaceae (22) > Leguminosae (19) > Cupresaceae (18) > Salicaceae (14) > Linaceae (13) Moraceae (12) > Iridaceae (10) > Lamiaceae (9) > Amarylidaceae, Vitaceae (8) > Brassicaceae, Cyperaceae, Ulmaceae (5). Comparing the various categories of plants as divided in this study (Fig. 1), trees are the most frequently cited group (31%) followed by the fruit trees (18%) and cereals (13%).
Among individual plants, Triticum monococcum (35 records) is the most well known because of its role in human diet (Irvine et al., 2019), accompanied by another cereal, Hordeum vulgare (20 records). Both wheat and barley were cultivated as main food products. During the Mycenaean era (historical period) the people’s diet was most likely based on wheat and barley. The use of cereal-made bread was a discriminative step of the civilized people, leaving forever back the acorn-eating age (Christopoulou, 2008). Although oil was not yet used as food but only as a cosmetic (Gooch, 2005), the second multi-referred plant is Olea europaea (33 records), followed by Fraxinus excelsior (32 records), especially in the Iliad where fierce battles are held with spears made of Fraxinus (Μελία). Another often-amentioned tree is Quercus pubescens (25 records), which dominates the flora of the area and is used in building construction.
The species Linum usitatissimum and Spartium junceum are also often cited (13 and 9 records, respectively) as being used for clothing such as robes and for cables. Strong evidence from the Mycenean palace documents the cultivation of flax and flax fibre production of that age (Valamoti 2011). On the other hand, Cyperus papyrus, also a technological plant, used for similar purposes (ships rigging), was recorded only once. Crocus sativus was mentioned (8 records) only in poetic metaphors (color of the very early morning or of fair-haired girls) and not as a dying material. Hyacynthus orientalis was mentioned (7 records) only because Ulysses’ hair resembled that of Hyacynthus flowers “like the Hyacynth.” Among flowers, the most commonly mentioned is the rose (Rosa centifolia) with 16 records. Μost of the time, however, it was used as an adjective for its beautiful color. One case mentioned the use of rose oil as an antiseptic in the treatment of dead corpses (Il. Ψ, 186).
Arundo donax (6 records) was referred to as a war object (arrows) and as a dominant element of the Trojan field where many battles are described in Iliad. Trifolium medium was recorded 6 times as animal (horses, cows) feed and as an element of natural pastures and meadows. Knowledge on plant ecology is also illustrated in the texts. For example, Asphodelus albus (5 records) was said to bloom in meadows that resulted from frequent fires and overgrazing (Pantis and Margaris, 1988). Fires and floods are also discussed in several cases, especially in the Trojan field.
The use of legumes (Cicer arientinum and Vicia faba), as a source of vegetable proteins, must have been scarce in human nutrition of the time, with only 2 records each and this only in poetical metaphors. However, archaeological finds suggest that the domestication and use of these legumes was perhaps earlier than 10th millennium B.P. (Tanno and Willcox, 2006). On the other hand, meat was frequently referred to, almost in every meal, as a source of proteins and lipids as well, since olive oil was still used only as cosmetic and not as food. Red wine was also used as an antidote for high meat consumption to prevent cardiovascular diseases (Sawidis, 2003). Thus, in the cultural landscape, grapevines predominated (8 records) because of their nutritional importance (Villagran and Squizzato, 2017). Vegetables did not seem to be a part of dietary habits since their limited references appeared in Batrachomyomachy and rarely in the epics.
Pharmaceutical plants were rarely referred to, for most therapeutic methods were applied largely through incantation and less through drugs from the plant kingdom. The knowledge of pharmaca still remained in the hands of magic Allium nigrum (1 record), Papaver somniverum (1 record) and war medicine such as Paeonia officinalis (1 record). The pharmaceutical plants represent a small percentage of the references, having magic-therapeutic powers or assigned supernatural characters (Villagran and Squizzato, 2017). Centuries after Paeon, the official war physician in Iliad, Hippocrates referred to 234 healing herbs, but the transition from the myth concept to the scientific observation and research of the plant world began during the Aristotle era (Forster, 1936).
The knowledge of the marine flora was limited. The only marine plant mentioned is the marine phanerogam Posidonia oceanica generally reported as “phycos” (φύκος). The sea was often called “non-harvested” (ατρύγετος πόντος), meaning sea without useful plants producing edible fruits. This indicates a surprising lack of marine resources in the diets of Early Bronze Age (Irvine et al., 2019). Fungi (eurotes) were also a kind of unwanted vegetation (5 records) mostly in dark Hades where only souls live. In some cases, the appearance of plants was illustrated by metaphors and similes, as mentioned above, e.g., lily-like (tender, baby-like) skin or voices.
A series of scientific terms or plant and animal names derived from a single Homeric plant name. From the 89 Homeric plants found in this study (466 records), 537 scientific terms, 519 plant names and 622 animal names were counted. Fig. 2 shows the contribution of the different plant categories to the creation of scientific terms. The contribution of fruit trees reflects their importance in the human diet. In particular, the “karyon”, which resembles the nucleus of the cell, occupies the first place with 87 records followed by “ion” (69) and Sparton (37). The dynamics of the “ion” in the creation of a large number of scientific terms (69), is because the plant lends its name to iodine, due to the violet color of this element and the derivatives originated from it. On the other hand, “sparton” has 37 terms from the special features of the spiral found in science and technology. Some other plant names such as “akantha” (Acanthus spinosus), “φύκος” (Posidonia oceanica) and “λίνον” (Linum usitatissimum), also revealed a great number of scientific terms (28, 24 and 13 respectively).
Regarding the contribution of Homeric plants in botanical nomenclature, first place is occupied by “akantha” and “sparton” with 39 and 34 entries, respectively. Both plants also are in zoological nomenclature with 120 and 35 entries, respectively. The spines that characterize this “akantha” (Acanthus spinosus) could easily be found in other plants or animals. On the other hand, the spiral form of the branches of Σπάρτον (Spartium junceum) laid the foundations for naming a number of other organisms or systems with similar properties. The oak (δρυς) also presents a special dynamic in the formation of scientific animal names (41). The strong presence of this tree in the eastern Mediterranean basin makes it a key element in life and therefore in the name formation of many associated animals.
The eastern Mediterranean basin has the richest flora of any European region. Important civilizations have flourished in this area whose relations with the surrounding natural environment are reflected in almost every activity they have developed (Kokkini et al., 1997). All the species appearing in the studied texts and constituting basic floral elements of this period still exist in Greece and adjacent regions. Although the Homeric heroic poems are far from being botanical documents, they remain a rich source of floristic knowledge of an era around 3000 years ago. It is highly likely, however, that Homeric peoples were familiar with many more plant species than those reported in the epics.
Conclusion
The Homeric epics introduced nomenclature and terminology in botany as well as zoology and contributed to the further development of many other sciences. In summary, the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) The information that Homeric peoples had about plants focused mainly on those involved in human activities such as nutrition, clothing, technology, war objects, animal feed and medicine, or on data used by poets for similies or metaphors. Cereals (wheat and barley) were most frequently recorded in the epics. In addition, terrestrial flora attracted more attention than freshwater flora, whereas mention of marine flora was very limited. (2) Plants reported in Homeric texts can be assigned to recent taxa on the basis of diverse information on their morphology, ecology or uses given in the texts. Plant names can be of great help since most of them have been retained in many languages or used in the formation of scientific terms and names not only for plants but for animals as well. (3) Useful botanical information can be derived from the study of the Homeric texts, which along with archaeology and art may help historical biogeographers to reconstruct the flora of the Bronze age.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Assoc. Professor of Systematic Botany Ioannis Tsiripidis for his help with plant species recognition, as well as Dr. Vasiliki Papakosta, Archaeological Scientist, for her contribution to the understanding of the Homeric texts and for revising the language. Gratitude is owed to Professor of Zoology Eleni Voultsiadou for inspiring me to search for botanical information in the classical texts.
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